Making Friends, Building Roads: Chinese Entrepreneurship and the Search for Reliability in Angola

Based on fieldwork conducted in 2013–2014 with a provincial-level Chinese state-owned construction firm Luanda, this article examines how businesses attempted to expand the aftermath of booming period Angolan postwar reconstruction. entrepreneurs found that business could only be done help local mediators promising open otherwise inaccessible portals political expediency. They shared their would-be collaborators an image Angola as land vast extractive opportunities, available those who gain access through crucial personal connections. Highly aware opacity and potential deceptiveness “friends,” part because they engaged dissimulative practices themselves, businesspeople evaluated partners less terms sincerity than efficacy. Amid general atmosphere mistrust, “reliability” emerged necessary quality for constructing relationships mutual benefit exploitation. [friendship, business, globalization, China–Angola relations] Basado en trabajo de campo conducido con una firma construcción propiedad del estado chino nivel provincial este artículo examina cómo las firmas chinas intentaron expandirse tras un período auge la reconstrucción postguerra angoleña. Los empresarios chinos encontraron que los negocios podían darse sólo ayuda mediadores locales prometiendo abrir portales otra manera inaccesibles conveniencia política. Ellos compartieron sus aspirantes colaboradores imagen como tierra oportunidades extractivas vastas, disponible solamente aquellos podrían ganar acceso través conexiones personales cruciales. Altamente conscientes opacidad y deshonestidad potencial “amigos,” parte porque ellos se involucraron prácticas disimuladoras por sí mismos, evaluaron compañeros angoleños menos términos sinceridad eficacia. En medio atmósfera desconfianza, “fiabilidad” emergió cualidad necesaria para construir relaciones beneficio mutuo explotación. [amistad, empresa, globalización, China–Angola] In 2012, while conducting interviews migrants I met young couple from Fujian province selling shoes clothing corner São Paulo Market, large collection shops street stalls center city. After several friendly conversations at sales counter, Huimin Xiaolong11 To protect privacy spoke me field, use pseudonyms all corporate names invited apartment rented nearby lunch Fuzhou fish balls—a specialty hometown shipped over inside containers full merchandise. As we chatted bowls noodle soup, told about tentative plans leave relocate elsewhere. imagined somewhere South America, perhaps Argentina, would offer greater “security” “stability” Angola. Their ultimate dream was end up United States, but require learning English, among other things. “I can teach you,” offered spontaneously, which my new friends replied enthusiasm, “Yes!” Xiaolong's eyes lit up. “That's just what thinking! This is why like make friends. You know, have saying Chinese: when you friend, pave road” (Ch. Duo yi ge pengyou, duo tiao lu).22 Here, translate lu (?) quite literally “road,” it also translated more abstractly “channel,” “path,” or “way.” Luzi (??) (road) colloquial expression instrumental connections Mandarin Chinese. Over year later, returned took internship enterprise (SOE). One afternoon, sat one managers store company operated, energetic man came stomping greet us The introduced himself John—he used English version, not Portuguese João, much common When asked he had learned Chinese, he'd lived China half. Now, worked translator companies around 450 clients,” bragged, then went assure if ever any problems police, call him. John long stay Angola, him least six months. “But months very little time here Angola,” admonished. “If three years, doors—you know mean by ‘doors’ [Pt. ‘Tas ver portas]? doors will go opening! There's lot money country, know? done! And must basis friendship amizade]. That's right. Because are maybe want do something, I'll channel um canal]. ‘channel’ is, don't you?” each these interactions, interlocutors appealed idea facilitating relationship, infrastructural portal lead benefits, including commercial ones. For Xiaolong, relations American might extension chances gaining livelihood, increasing his family's social mobility. John, similarly provided accessing pathways closed off. References “roads” “channels” imagery obligatory reciprocity bind people together result (Zhao 2019),33 By comparison, Emily Martin ([1986] 2014) has described how, “traditional” society, goods were exchanged order interaction. goal been sociality, gain. “doors” inspired fantasies opportunity. barriers realm possibilities enrichment, gates unlocked right contacts. Modern capitalist its Euro-American variant, understood built basic separation between impersonal institutions human (Hart 2005). An ideal depersonalized rational calculation functioning (Weber [1930] 2001) persists, leading feminist anthropologists urge attention significance kinship kinds sociality making (Bear et al. 2015). notion emotional ties should kept separate interactions echoes Aristotle's “virtuous friendship” Ethics, put forth most strongly during eighteenth-century Scottish Enlightenment Adam Smith. Theorizing market space exchange “ruthless self-interest” pursued freely, Smith considered friendship, “understood voluntary, egalitarian, personal, based affective bond” (Carey 2017, 47; Silver 1990), morally superior types sociality. Anthropologists working both African contexts, however, noted fusion interest affect settings. Studies guanxi, set involving “the gifts, favors, banquets; cultivation networks dependence; manufacturing obligation indebtedness” (Yang 1994, 6), boomed 1990s sought understand economic fabric post-Mao (Kipnis 1997; Smart 1993; Yan 1996). rather different context, southern Africa wake neoliberal structural adjustment AIDS epidemic, relationships, often highly unequal, friends, family, lovers serve vehicles distribution resources (Ferguson 2015; Hunter 2010). Although such always entail some measure moral ambiguity, melding bonds selfish, practical interests viewed deviating idealized model unachievable practice; rather, may openly acknowledged actively cultivated ordinary life. extent, references hezuo huoban) echo state-level rhetoric regarding China–Africa relations. Emma Mawdsley (2012) noted, distinguishes Global donors Northern predecessors discursive performance egalitarianism, respect, benefit. Instead taking approach assumed inequality donor provides charitable “gift” presumably weaker recipient, Southern development emphasize reciprocal collaboration allegedly egalitarian states histories colonial humiliation. Especially former socialist regimes, language “friendship” bears traces anti-imperialist fraternity, remobilized current moment pursuit development. gains made explicit slogans “win-win,” countries’ national self-interest acknowledged, “recipient countries constructed sites promise opportunity” (Mawdsley 152). Similarly, interlocutors’ renditions above, “natural sympathy” (Nehamas 2008) manufactured relationship places service goals. Such goals signaled metaphors roads, doors, channels—all ways means something beyond “in itself,” elusive Aristotelian ideal. strategic lucrative opportunities further premised specific imaginary paradise, natural ripe Following 2002 declaration twenty-seven-year-long civil war, leaders international support finance massive National Reconstruction Program. Unable unwilling accept conditionalities imposed funders Europe government turned China, signed agreement 2003. stipulated credit lines infrastructure projects. enterprises fulfill majority contracts, oil guarantee repayment loans (Corkin 2013).44 International Fund (CIF), private organization close states, additional contracts projects (Levkowitz, Ross, Warner 2009). next few become top sources imported China's largest trading partner continent (Alves 2013). media reporting years key producer “golden opportunities” (Liu 2012), 2010, there estimated fifty four hundred “involved Angola's reconstruction” (Macauhub ethnographic study economy form performatively enacted sustained Equatorial Guinea, Hannah Appel (2017, 310) shown theory, specifically “resource curse,” combines “private-sector fantasies” give life “translocal imaginings endless riches Equatoguinean frontier,” however distant reality historically produced poverty repression. fieldwork, similar resource wealth. Courtship thus animated possibility being deceived swindled out them. Indeed, risk taken advantage someone constant concern entry into facilitated many themselves positions vulnerability vis-à-vis state regulatory actors, frequently targeted individuals extortion. keep afloat, needed sectors, establish partnerships sum, collaborate precisely readily exploit This, alongside unfamiliarity linguistic conventions, contributed disposition mistrust interlocutors, wariness “friends.” Whereas detrimental case Angolan–Chinese collaborations twenty-first century, allowed flourish. first Manager Deng, party secretary Trade Department director SOE Northwest Construction, November 2013. arrived Luanda previous month conduct research investment migration acquaintance brought Shopping ChinAngola, located peripheral zone undergoing extensive redevelopment. shopping partnership branch firm. It retail wholesale spaces exclusively vendors, sold building materials related products customers. Having opened year, ChinAngola already target controversy media, apparent Chineseness interpreted exclusionary Angolans—it earned reputation “Chinese” mall city, framed non-Chinese symbol insidious invasion Many insisted see it. At managed, Li Jun, twenty-something-year-old deputy Construction's Department, eventually supervisor, middle-aged Director Deng. Construction unique operate although later individual unusual company's forays household appliances represented mode operation characteristic fieldwork. come 2005, two after Ministry Finance Commerce finalized “resources infrastructure” agreement. Subcontracting central-level SOEs larger companies, completed reconstruction, 2013, began ten-month begun look outside sector. complained “saturated” baohe) competition Portuguese, Brazilian contractors, claimed “eliminated” bei taotai) it, pursue strategy “diversified development” duoyuanhua fazhan). included opening shop sell air-conditioners ceramic tiles ChinAngola. badly need translator, since none employees fluent volunteered skills opportunity learn everyday work company. visiting near-daily basis, Deng dormitory room compounds, where January 2014 until evening, tea office adjacent dorm room, explained subsidiary entire global network: “There main reasons rich country today: first, oil, second, way distributed generals war.55 certainly benefits high per capita incomes, “rich country” obviously overlooks grinding affecting population. discussion MPLA elites, Soares Oliveira (2015, chapter 3). Generals received diamonds luckier, anyone got money. So started get rich. coming given another People project, them quote of, say, million, they'll tell you, ‘Just add 500,000,’ ‘Why million?’ way, without having anything, connection government.” prevalence “corrupt” impede development, assured me, “Angola good place so openings exploit” hen kongzi keyi zuan; lit: holes bore through). nearly ten nickname well suited philosophy: Drill feizhou zuan). Zuan (?) drill into, literally, sense drilling hole, figuratively, immersion activity. character evocative word diamond, zuanshi (??), significant mineral export unclear whether noticed irony metaphor context extraction source tremendous wealth stinging inequality. Regardless, choice name revealing ways. First, reflected entrepreneurial ambitions managers, whom side businesses, itself, retain “competitiveness” jingzheng li) engaging ventures ranging restaurants auto-repair shops. behavior aspirations blurred perceived boundary firms. Second, Deng's vision moneymaking arena, gaps pried open. “holes” kongzi) mentioned referred generally, did preclude illegal activities.66 staff phrasing—zuan yige loudong (lit: “drill” squeeze loophole)—to describe exploiting weakness legal system, example, paying bribe jail. law, encountered research, rigid regulations flexible system maneuvered manipulated. foreigners Angolans alike, degree move within bureaucratic structures determined one's mobilization actual fictive family relations, called cunhas, navigating contemporary especially encounters agents (Schubert 112). able activate cunha, “insert wedge,” situated oneself network hierarchical material administrative efficacy flowed. personally connected speed process waive fine. If not, deliberately cultivate affection respect authority (Gaibazzi 2018). reported half-jokingly, early Program, drivers past routine traffic police stops simply shouting “Portuguese” knew, Kopelipa!—the General Manuel Hélder Vieira Dias, head president's military powerful men politics. entrepreneurs, appeared lack resources. Besides ubiquitous resulted hostile negotiation payment fine questionable violation, frequent visits various authority. On store, myself representatives filling inspection form. said fire extinguishers, aunt, Dona Lúcia, Fire provide “guidance.” day, Lúcia her colleagues, looking hour, enumerated issues rectified. addition second “No Smoking” sign fire-safety training employee, special extinguishers ordered, cost $140 USD each, plus $60 filled. purchased directly Department—in words, her. addition, inspectors compensated transport, fee 10,000 kwanzas (roughly $100 USD). speak before payments made, launched lengthy speech help, cause trouble, “and that's asking money.” unaware details inspectors’ demands, Jun familiar kind practice in, approached left ask sarcastically, “Did spend money?” figures employed, identify violation remedy, invariably monetary payment, nicely summarized story: “They create solutions” (Pt. Criam dificuldades vender facilidades). tactics suspected because, comparison foreigners, wealthy beneficiaries policy, unable negotiate due constraints, willing resolve cash payments. facilidades facilities), channels invoked sometimes essential rely regularly “facilitation,” even “creating difficulties” first. visit “working with” Roads Institute project build 180 offices, province. script I'd seen perform associates, interested, experience well-known project!” exclaimed center. Isn't Lu? Or Wu? remember, he's company.” man's eagerness demonstrate participation important betrayed shaky memory executive's name. visitor water, “Are Chinese?” parents Again, eager show us, countries: “My mother Angolan, father Tomé.” visited father's country. “Yes! time. house there, big piece land. Tomé beautiful Sonangol [the company] beginning explore Gulf Guinea.” allusion resources, still untapped, suggested hidden our nascent partnership. official documentation indeed interested obtaining contract. addressed Sports, planning begin youth recreational centers across country—a departure original proposal. uncle minister,” said, carefully pronouncing remember directors interested. “I've companies,” tried reassure slightly arrogant tone, “And earning ‘ten percents.’ earn too, percent. Whoever rolls makes Quem anda comigo ganha dinheiro]!” He laughed. “Later, back States woman, your husband child, Africa!” instance, stranger claiming entered random, search contractor share spoils project. His boasting member employed ministry intended display capital Bourdieusian sense: mobilized position semi-institutionalized (Bourdieu 1986). reference parent performed function elite families rumored foreign origins—then-president José Eduardo dos Santos born 98). Like amplify credibility describing record admitted described, adding certain amount budget requested. earnings “ten percents,” chuckling something. laughter intimation complicity (Driessen 2019) come, expatriates, members primary money, legally means. Fixers collaborator seduce imaginaries Africa, profit—imaginaries partners.77 (2007) offers example contributing fraudulent activities ethnography corruption Nigeria. same governed opaque personalized power, determine thrive. distance, accessible proper Gatekeepers supposed minister's nephew promised facilitation, price, others government, earlier, threatened obstruction. Both played networks. businesspeople, part, wary imposture. drove away dented dust-stained sedan, Ma Hui, accountant, thought “We can,” guy's fraud [Ch. pianzi]?”88 term pianzi nominalization verb pian, meaning deceive, swindle, cheat, connoting deception repercussion losses. Ma's